Headline on international relation : U.S. Sanctions Russian Oil Majors; Indian Refiners Poised to Cut Purchases
1. Preliminary Facts
- What: The United States has imposed new sanctions on Russia’s two largest oil companies, Rosneft and Lukoil, accusing them of funding the Kremlin’s war in Ukraine. This has caused global oil prices to rise by 3%.
- Key Mechanism:
- Targeted Entities: The sanctions specifically target Rosneft and Lukoil, which together account for over 5% of global oil output.
- Wind-down Period: The U.S. Treasury has given global companies a deadline until November 21 to wind down all transactions with these sanctioned entities.
Impact on India: In response, major Indian refiners like Reliance Industries and public sector undertakings (PSUs) are poised to sharply curtail imports of Russian crude oil to comply with the sanctions.
This development represents a critical juncture for India’s foreign and economic policy, forcing a recalibration of its strategic balancing act between its historical partner, Russia, and its key strategic partner, the United States.
A. The Nature of the Sanctions and U.S. Demands:
- Explicit Objective: The U.S. aims to constrict the oil and gas revenue that constitutes a quarter of Russia’s federal budget, described as the “most important source of funding” for the war in Ukraine.
- Call for Allied Action: The U.S. Treasury has explicitly “encouraged” allies to join and adhere to these sanctions, creating direct diplomatic pressure on India.
- U.S. Perception of Indian Compliance: President Trump’s public assertion that India has agreed to reduce imports to “almost nothing” by year-end attempts to lock in a public commitment, regardless of India’s official stance.
PRELIMS 360
Economic sanctions are tools of foreign policy and international diplomacy used to achieve political, economic, or security objectives.
🎯 Objectives of Economic Sanctions
- To pressure governments to change policies (e.g., human rights, nuclear programs)
- To punish violations of international law
- To prevent conflict or maintain international peace and security
- To deter others from similar actions (e.g., invasion, terrorism)
- To signal disapproval in the international community
🧩 Types of Economic Sanctions
| Type | Description | Example |
| Trade Sanctions | Restrictions or bans on exports/imports | U.S. ban on exports to Cuba |
| Financial Sanctions | Freezing of assets, cutting off banking access | Freezing Russian oligarchs’ assets (2022) |
| Travel Restrictions / Visa Bans | Preventing officials from traveling abroad | U.N. bans on Taliban leaders |
| Arms Embargoes | Prohibiting sale/transfer of weapons | U.N. arms embargo on North Korea |
| Sectoral Sanctions | Targeting specific industries (energy, defense, etc.) | Sanctions on Russian oil sector |
| Comprehensive Sanctions | Blanket restrictions on an entire country | Iraq (1990s) under U.N. sanctions |
🌐 Major Institutions Involved
- United Nations Security Council (UNSC) — can impose sanctions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter.
- United States (OFAC) — Office of Foreign Assets Control implements U.S. sanctions.
- European Union (EU) — imposes sanctions as part of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).
- Individual Countries / Coalitions — impose unilateral or multilateral sanctions.
Headline on governance: Centre Writes to CJI Gavai to Recommend Successor; Justice Surya Kant Next in Line
1. Preliminary Facts
- What: The Union Government has formally written to the incumbent Chief Justice of India (CJI), Justice B.R. Gavai, seeking his recommendation for appointing his successor.
- Trigger: This is a standard procedure initiated prior to the retirement of a sitting CJI. Justice Gavai is scheduled to retire on November 24.
- Current Status: The CJI is on a visit to Bhutan and is expected to send his recommendation upon his return.
- Seniority Norm: As per the established convention, the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court, Justice Surya Kant, is next in line to become the 53rd CJI.
The Established Procedure (Memorandum of Procedure – MoP):
- Formal Initiation: The process is kickstarted by the Union Law Ministry writing to the outgoing CJI.
- CJI’s Recommendation: The incumbent CJI provides a formal recommendation for their successor, which, by convention, is the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court.
- Government’s Role: The government, upon receiving the recommendation, processes the appointment and issues the official warrant of appointment.
- Timeline: This process is typically initiated a month before the retirement to ensure a seamless transition.
The Collegium System Context:
- It is crucial to note that the appointment of the CJI is distinct from the appointment of other Supreme Court and High Court judges.
- While the Collegium system (a body of senior judges) recommends names for judgeships, the appointment of the CJI is based primarily on the seniority norm, with the outgoing CJI’s recommendation being the key step.
PRELIMS 360
Memorandum of Procedure (MoP)
- The Memorandum of Procedure (MoP) is a document that lays down the process for appointment, elevation, and transfer of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts, including the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
- It is not a constitutional or statutory document, but an executive-cum-judicially approved guideline evolved through conventions and judicial pronouncements.
⚖️ Constitutional Basis
- Article 124(2) of the Constitution:
“The President shall appoint every Judge of the Supreme Court after consultation with such of the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts as the President may deem necessary.”
- However, after the Collegium System evolved through Supreme Court judgments, the MoP operationalizes how this consultation/collegium process works.
🏛️ Evolution of the MoP
| Stage | Key Case / Event | Significance |
| First Judges Case (1981) | S.P. Gupta v. Union of India | Executive primacy in judicial appointments |
| Second Judges Case (1993) | Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association v. Union of India | Introduced Collegium System (judicial primacy) |
| Third Judges Case (1998) | Presidential Reference | Expanded Collegium; required MoP for clear procedure |
| Post NJAC Judgment (2015) | SC struck down NJAC Act | Directed govt. and judiciary to revise MoP to ensure transparency and accountability |
Current Procedure (Convention-based MoP)
1. Appointment of the Chief Justice of India (CJI)
- The President of India appoints the CJI.
- As per MoP and long-standing convention:
The senior-most judge of the Supreme Court considered fit to hold the office is recommended for appointment as the CJI.
Chief Justice of India (CJI)
🔹 Constitutional Basis
- Article 124(1) – Establishes the Supreme Court of India with a Chief Justice and other judges.
- Article 124(2) – Deals with appointment of the Chief Justice and judges of the Supreme Court.
⚖️ Appointment of the Chief Justice of India
Authority:
- Appointed by the President of India under Article 124(2).
Procedure (as per Convention & Memorandum of Procedure – MoP):
- Initiation – When the incumbent CJI nears retirement, the Law Minister seeks the recommendation of the next CJI from the outgoing CJI.
- Recommendation – The senior-most judge of the Supreme Court, who is deemed fit, is recommended.
- Forwarding – The Law Minister forwards this recommendation to the Prime Minister.
- Appointment – The President appoints the recommended judge as the next Chief Justice of India.
🧩 Key Principles:
- Seniority Rule: The senior-most judge is appointed as CJI.
- Fitness: The judge must be “fit to hold the office” — in terms of integrity, conduct, and capability.
- Convention: This practice has been followed consistently since 1950.
(No deviation from seniority has ever occurred.)
🪙 Tenure
- No fixed tenure.
- Holds office until 65 years of age (Article 124(2)).
- May resign by writing to the President of India.
- Can be removed by impeachment under Article 124(4).
⚔️ Removal of the CJI
Grounds:
- Proved misbehaviour or incapacity (Article 124(4)).
Procedure:
- Motion signed by 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs.
- Inquiry by a Judicial Committee (Judges Inquiry Act, 1968).
- If found guilty → Both Houses must pass the motion by:
- Special Majority:
- Majority of total membership of that House, and
- Majority of not less than 2/3 of members present and voting.
- Special Majority:
- President issues an order for removal.
👉 No CJI has ever been impeached in India.
🏛️ Powers and Functions of the CJI
1. Judicial Functions
- Head of the Judiciary and Master of the Roster — decides which judges hear which cases.
- Constitutes Benches and allocates cases in the Supreme Court.
- Presides over Constitution Benches and larger benches.
2. Administrative Functions
- Supervises administration of the Supreme Court.
- Recommends names for appointment of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts (via the Collegium System).
- Transfers High Court judges (Collegium role).
- Appoints court staff and officers.
3. Advisory Role
- Consulted by the President under Article 143 (Advisory Jurisdiction).
- Plays a key role in the appointment of various constitutional posts:
- Chairperson of National Judicial Academy
- Nominator for NHRC, Lokpal, CBI Director, etc.
4. Other Roles
- Administers oath to the President in case of emergency (if the President or Vice President are unavailable, CJI acts as President of India under Article 65).
🌍 Collegium System and the CJI
- The CJI heads the Collegium, which recommends appointments and transfers of judges.
- Composition:
- CJI + 4 senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
- Based on the Second (1993) and Third (1998) Judges Cases.
- Operates through the Memorandum of Procedure (MoP).
🧠 Important Facts for UPSC
| Feature | Details |
| Appointing Authority | President of India |
| Appointed on Advice of | Council of Ministers (after recommendation by outgoing CJI) |
| Retirement Age | 65 years |
| Removal | By impeachment (Article 124(4)) |
| First CJI | H. J. Kania (1950–1951) |
| Current CJI (as of 2025) | [D.Y. Chandrachud] (since Nov 2022) |
| Total Number of CJIs (till 2025) | 50+ |
| Constitutional Articles | 124, 126, 127, 128 (related to SC judges) |
Headline on polity and governance: Aland Voter Fraud: SIT Identifies Six Suspects, Unearths Money Trail
1. Preliminary Facts (For Mains Answer Introduction)
- What: A Special Investigation Team (SIT) is investigating a large-scale voter data fraud case in the Aland constituency of Karnataka.
- Key Mechanism: A “call centre-like” firm in Kalaburagi was allegedly used to submit 5,994 forged Form 7 applications to delete legitimate voters from the electoral rolls.
- Money Trail: The SIT has uncovered a payment of ₹80 per forged application, totaling a significant amount for the nearly 6,000 forgeries.
This case represents a sophisticated, technologically-enabled attack on the integrity of the electoral process, raising serious questions about the vulnerabilities in the system.
A. The Modus Operandi of the Fraud:
- Targeted Deletion: The fraud did not involve creating fake voters, but submitting Form 7 (application for objection to inclusion of name in electoral roll) to delete genuine voters, a more subtle and disruptive form of electoral manipulation.
- Industrial-Scale Operation: The use of a dedicated firm, payment structures, and the volume of forgeries (5,994) indicate a professional, organized effort, not a sporadic one.
- Exploiting Digital Infrastructure: The perpetrators used 64 fake login IDs on official Election Commission (EC) portals/apps, bypassing security measures like OTPs. The mystery of how these OTPs were compromised points to a potential technical or social engineering vulnerability.
Prelims 360
Form 7 – Electoral Roll Objection Form
📘 What is Form 7?
- Form 7 is a statutory form prescribed under the Representation of the People Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors Rules, 1960.
- It is used to object to the inclusion of a name in the electoral roll or to request deletion of an existing entry from the electoral roll.
⚖️ Legal Basis
- Representation of the People Act, 1950
- Governs preparation and revision of electoral rolls.
- Registration of Electors Rules, 1960
- Prescribes various forms (Form 6 to Form 8A) for registration-related activities.
- Form 7 is specifically for objection to inclusion or deletion of names.
📄 Purpose of Form 7
Used in two situations:
- Objecting to the inclusion of a name in the electoral roll
👉 Example: A person objects that someone listed is not a genuine voter of that constituency. - Requesting deletion of a name from the electoral roll
👉 Example: The person has died, shifted residence, or is not qualified to be enrolled (e.g., underage, non-citizen).
🧾 Who Can File Form 7?
- Any person whose name appears in the electoral roll of the same constituency.
- It can also be filed by a relative of a deceased person or authorized person on behalf of another.
🧩 Information Required in Form 7
- Details of the objector/applicant (name, address, EPIC number)
- Details of the person whose name is objected/deleted
- Reason for objection/deletion (death, shifted residence, not qualified, etc.)
- Declaration and signature of the applicant
- Supporting documents (e.g., death certificate, address proof)
🖋️ Submission Process
| Step | Description |
| 1️⃣ | Fill Form 7 (online or offline). |
| 2️⃣ | Submit to the Electoral Registration Officer (ERO) or Assistant ERO of the concerned constituency. |
| 3️⃣ | The ERO verifies the objection/deletion claim. |
| 4️⃣ | Notice is sent to the concerned person for hearing. |
| 5️⃣ | After verification, the ERO may accept or reject the request. |
💻 Online Submission
- Available on the National Voters’ Service Portal (NVSP) or Voter Helpline App.
- Digital version: https://voters.eci.gov.in/
- Requires EPIC (Voter ID) details and supporting documents.
⚙️ Other Related Forms
| Form | Purpose |
| Form 6 | Inclusion of name (new voter registration) |
| Form 6A | Inclusion of name for overseas electors |
| Form 7 | Objection to inclusion / Request for deletion |
| Form 8 | Correction of entries in the electoral roll |
| Form 8A | Transposition of entry within the same constituency |
Headline: Defence Ministry Clears ₹79,000 Crore Deal for Tri-Services Modernisation
1. Preliminary Facts
What: The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC), chaired by Defence Minister Rajnath Singh, has granted Acceptance of Necessity (AoN) for capital acquisition proposals worth approximately ₹79,000 crore.
- Governing Body: The DAC is the highest decision-making body for defence procurement in the Ministry of Defence.
- Objective: The acquisitions are designed to enhance the lethality, mobility, and intelligence-gathering capabilities of the Army, Navy, and Air Force.
- Overarching Theme: The approvals underscore the government’s focus on modernisation and the ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’ (Self-Reliant India) initiative in defence.
This massive approval is a significant step in addressing the critical need for modernising India’s armed forces amidst a complex and challenging regional security environment.
A. Strategic Significance of the Acquisitions:
- Bolstering Deterrence: The procurement of systems like the Nag Missile (NAMIS) and long-range drones (CLRTS/DS) is aimed at strengthening India’s deterrence posture, particularly along its contested borders, by enhancing precision strike capabilities.
- Multi-Domain Operations: The approvals cover land (Army), maritime (Navy), and aerial (Air Force) domains, indicating a holistic approach to building integrated war-fighting capabilities.
- Amphibious and HADR Capability: The Landing Platform Docks (LPDs) for the Navy are force multipliers, not just for amphibious warfare but also for Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) operations, a critical soft-power tool in the Indian Ocean Region.
B. Focus on ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’ in Defence:
- Indigenous Content: A significant number of approved systems are indigenously developed, such as the Nag Mk-II missile and the Advanced Light Weight Torpedo (ALWT) by DRDO labs. This reduces import dependency and strengthens the domestic defence industrial ecosystem.
- Boosting MSMEs: Large-scale procurement drives create a ripple effect, generating demand and fostering innovation within the Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME) sector that forms the backbone of the defence supply chain.
Prelims 360
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
🔹 Overview
- Full Form: Defence Research and Development Organisation
- Established: 1958
- Headquarters: New Delhi
- Parent Ministry: Ministry of Defence (MoD), Government of India
- Motto: “Balasya Mulam Vigyanam” (Strength’s Origin is in Science)
Major DRDO Projects and Achievements
Missile Systems (Under IGMDP)
| Missile | Type | Status |
| Prithvi | Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile | Inducted |
| Agni Series | Medium to intercontinental ballistic missiles | Inducted (Agni I–V) |
| Akash | Surface-to-air missile | Inducted |
| Nag | Anti-tank guided missile | Inducted |
| Trishul | Short-range SAM | Test completed (technology base) |
| BrahMos | Supersonic cruise missile (with Russia) | Operational |
| Agni-VI, Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator (HSTDV) | Under development |
Aircraft & Drones
- Tejas LCA (Light Combat Aircraft)
- Rustom, Tapas UAVs, Netra AEW&CS (Airborne Early Warning System)
- Ghatak UCAV (Under development)
Tanks & Combat Vehicles
- Arjun Main Battle Tank (MBT)
- Bhishma upgrades, DRDO Armoured Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (AVRDE)
Radar & Electronics
- Rohini, Rajendra, Swathi Weapon Locating Radar
- Samyukta EW System, AEW&CS (Airborne Early Warning and Control System)
Strategic & Naval Systems
- INS Arihant – India’s first indigenous nuclear-powered submarine (DRDO contribution: reactor, control systems)
- Varunastra Torpedo, Astra Air-to-Air Missile
Life Sciences & Soldier Support
- High-altitude nutrition and clothing
- NBC (Nuclear, Biological, Chemical) protection suits
- Portable oxygen systems for Siachen
🧬 Recent Achievements (2023–25)
- Successful test of Agni-Prime and Agni-V MIRV variants.
- Development of hypersonic vehicle technology.
- Collaboration with private industry under Make in India and iDEX (Innovations for Defence Excellence).
- Advancements in AI, robotics, and quantum technologies for defence use.
Headline on editorial: Analysis: Should India Take Global Leadership on Climate Change?
1. Preliminary Facts
- Context: Ahead of COP30 in Belém, Brazil, a leadership vacuum exists as the U.S. has withdrawn from the Paris Agreement and the EU is reluctant to assume a dominant role.
- The Question: In this scenario, should India step up to take global leadership on climate change?
- India’s Upcoming Commitments: India is expected to submit updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and a National Adaptation Plan (NAP).
This discussion revolves around India’s capacity, strategy, and the potential benefits of assuming a larger role in global climate governance.
A. The Case for Indian Leadership:
- Credibility and Steadiness: India has a track record of working steadily towards its climate goals. Its target of 50% non-fossil fuel electricity by 2030 is on track, demonstrating implementation capability.
- Demonstrable Decoupling: India has begun to decouple economic growth from emissions growth, particularly in the power sector. This provides a powerful model for other developing nations.
- Scale as an Opportunity: The massive scale of India’s economy and its transition offers a unique laboratory for deploying green technologies, driving down costs (e.g., via schemes like PM-KUSUM), and creating scalable solutions.
- Building the “Axis of Good”: India can lead by example and through bilateral partnerships (e.g., with the EU on climate tech, with Brazil on forests), fostering South-South cooperation and filling the leadership void.
Decoupling of Economic Growth from Emissions
Decoupling refers to the process of breaking the link between economic growth and environmental degradation — particularly greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
In simple terms:
Economic growth continues, but emissions stop increasing (or even decline).
🧩 Types of Decoupling
| Type | Meaning | Indicator |
| 1. Relative Decoupling | Emissions grow slower than GDP (emission intensity per GDP falls, but total emissions still rise). | ↓ Emission intensity; ↑ Total emissions |
| 2. Absolute Decoupling | Emissions decline in absolute terms while GDP continues to grow. | ↓ Total emissions & ↓ Emission intensity |
Measurement Indicators
- Emission Intensity of GDP = Total GHG emissions / GDP
→ Lower values indicate decoupling. - Carbon Intensity per unit of energy use or production.
- Energy intensity of GDP.
India’s Experience with Decoupling
✅ Achievements
- Emission intensity of GDP reduced by:
- 24% (2005–2016)
- 33% (2005–2019) → India met its NDC target 11 years ahead.
- India committed to reduce emission intensity by 45% by 2030 (from 2005 level).
🔋 Drivers of Decoupling in India
| Sector | Decoupling Drivers |
| Energy | Renewable energy expansion (450+ GW target), solar, wind |
| Industry | Energy efficiency via PAT (Perform, Achieve & Trade) scheme |
| Transport | E-mobility, fuel efficiency norms |
| Agriculture | Better irrigation, reduced diesel use |
| Forestry | Afforestation, carbon sinks |
💡 Policies Supporting Decoupling
| Policy / Initiative | Objective |
| National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) | Promote sustainable growth via 8 missions |
| Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) | Commitments under Paris Agreement |
| Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) | Industrial energy efficiency |
| National Solar Mission | Low-carbon power generation |
| Faster Adoption of Electric Vehicles (FAME) | Reduce oil dependency and transport emissions |
| Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022 | Mandates carbon trading framework |
| Green Hydrogen Mission (2023) | Clean fuel substitution |
